The Magdalena Valley montane forests (NT0136) is an ecoregion in the

Andes The Andes, Andes Mountains or Andean Mountains (; ) are the longest continental mountain range in the world, forming a continuous highland along the western edge of South America. The range is long, wide (widest between 18°S – 20°S ...

mountains of central

Colombia Colombia (, ; ), officially the Republic of Colombia, is a country in South America with insular regions in North America—near Nicaragua's Caribbean coast—as well as in the Pacific Ocean. The Colombian mainland is bordered by the Car ...

Geography

Location

The ecoregion covers the higher land on both sides of the valley of the

Magdalena River The Magdalena River ( es, Río Magdalena, ; less commonly ) is the main river of Colombia, flowing northward about through the western half of the country. It takes its name from the biblical figure Mary Magdalene. It is navigable through much of ...

in the Colombian

. The river flows north between the

Eastern Ranges The Eastern Ranges is an Australian rules football team in the NAB League, the Victorian statewide under-18s competition. The club is a founding member of the competition (1992) and has produced several players for the Australian Football Leag ...

to the east and the

Central Ranges Central Ranges (code CER) is an Australian bioregion, with an area of 101,640.44 square kilometres (39,244 sq mi) spreading across two states and one territory: South Australia, Western Australia, and the Northern Territory.Magdalena Valley dry forests The Magdalena Valley dry forests (NT0221) is an ecoregion in Colombia along the upper Magdalena River, a large river that runs from south to north between the two main ''cordilleras'' of the Andes. There are many endemic species, but much of the or ...

ecoregion which in turn contains the upper Magdalena River, and the

Magdalena–Urabá moist forests The Magdalena–Urabá moist forests (NT0137) is an ecoregion in the north of Colombia. The terrain is largely flat or undulating, but includes mountainous areas in the south. It contains moist forests and large wetlands that are important to resi ...

ecoregion which contains the lower Magdalena River and extends across the lowlands north of the Magdalena Valley montane forests ecoregion. Sections of

Northern Andean páramo The Northern Andean páramo (NT1006) is an ecoregion containing páramo vegetation above the treeline in the Andes of Colombia and Ecuador. In the past, when the climate was cooler, the treeline and the páramo units were lower and the units were c ...

cover the highest land beside and within the ecoregion. To the west, the ecoregion merges into the

Cauca Valley montane forests The Cauca Valley montane forests (NT0109) is an ecoregion in western Colombia. It covers the sides of the Cauca Valley, which runs from south to north between the Central and Western Ranges (''cordilleras'') of the Colombian Andes. The ecoregion i ...

on the other side of the Cordillera Central, and to the east it merges into the

Cordillera Oriental montane forests The Cordillera Oriental montane forests (NT0118) is an ecoregion in Venezuela and Colombia along the east slopes of the eastern cordillera of the Andes. The extensive region of submontane and montane forests includes distinctive flora and fauna in ...

. In the far south the ecoregion transitions into the

Eastern Cordillera Real montane forests Eastern may refer to: Transportation *China Eastern Airlines, a current Chinese airline based in Shanghai * Eastern Air, former name of Zambia Skyways * Eastern Air Lines, a defunct American airline that operated from 1926 to 1991 * Eastern Air ...

Terrain

The rocks of the Eastern Ranges are sedimentary in origin, while the central range is highly volcanic and

metamorphic Metamorphic rocks arise from the transformation of existing rock to new types of rock in a process called metamorphism. The original rock (protolith) is subjected to temperatures greater than and, often, elevated pressure of or more, causi ...

. Soils are very diverse, giving rise to diverse flora. The

Serranía de San Lucas The Serranía de San Lucas is a forested massif in the Bolívar Department of northern Colombia that reaches heights of 2,600m above sea level. It is part of the Magdalena-Urabá moist forests ecoregion, with a rainforest ecology that includes lar ...

rises in the center of the Magdalena Medio. The Magdalena River drains north to the Caribbean. From south to north the main tributaries are the Suaza, Saldaña,

Sumapaz Sumapaz is the 20th locality of Bogotá, capital of Colombia. It is the largest of Bogotá's 20 localities, starting in the north at the edge of the urban frontier with Usme and stretching to the south at the border of Cundinamarca with the depa ...

, Chicamocha, Carare, Cauca and its tributary the

Nechí Nechi is a town and municipality in the Colombian department of Antioquia. Climate Nechí has a tropical rainforest climate A tropical rainforest climate, humid tropical climate or equatorial climate is a tropical climate sub-type usually fo ...

Climate

At a sample location at , the

Köppen climate classification The Köppen climate classification is one of the most widely used climate classification systems. It was first published by German-Russian climatologist Wladimir Köppen (1846–1940) in 1884, with several later modifications by Köppen, notabl ...

is Af: equatorial; fully humid. Mean temperatures range from in October to in March. There are rainy seasons from April to June and from October to December. At the sample location the total yearly rainfall is about . Monthly rainfall rises from in January to in May, falls to in July, then rises again to in October.

Ecology

The ecoregion is in the

neotropical The Neotropical realm is one of the eight biogeographic realms constituting Earth's land surface. Physically, it includes the tropical terrestrial ecoregions of the Americas and the entire South American temperate zone. Definition In bioge ...

realm, in the

tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests (TSMF), also known as tropical moist forest, is a subtropical and tropical forest habitat type defined by the World Wide Fund for Nature. Description TSMF is generally found in large, discon ...

biome. It is part of the Northern Andean Montane Forests global ecoregion, which includes the Magdalena Valley montane forests,

Venezuelan Andes montane forests The Venezuelan Andes montane forests (NT0175) is an ecoregion in the northern arm of the Andes in Venezuela. It contains montane and cloud forests, reaching up to the high-level Cordillera de Merida páramo high moor ecoregion. The forests are home ...

Northwestern Andean montane forests The Northwestern Andean montane forests (NT0145) is an ecoregion on the Andes mountains in the west of Colombia and Ecuador. Both flora and fauna are highly diverse due to effect of ice ages when the warmer climate zones were separated and the cool ...

Santa Marta montane forests The Santa Marta montane forests (NT0159) is an ecoregion in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, a massif on the Caribbean coast of northern Colombia. The ecoregion covers altitudes from near sea level up to around , where it gives way to Santa Marta ...

and

terrestrial ecoregions.

Flora

Cloud forests are found at elevation of about and higher up at elevations of . Common trees include ''

Anacardium excelsum ''Anacardium excelsum'', the wild cashew or ''espavé'', is a tree in the flowering plant family Anacardiaceae. The tree is common in the tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests of Pacific and Atlantic watersheds of Central and South Amer ...

'', '' Cedrela odorata'', ''

Cordia alliodora ''Cordia alliodora'' is a species of flowering tree in the borage family, Boraginaceae, that is native to the American tropics. It is commonly known as Spanish elm, Ecuador laurel, cypre or salmwood. It can reach 35 m in height. Uses ''Cordia ...

'', '' Decussocarpus rospigliossi'', ''

Hieronyma macrocarpa ''Hieronyma macrocarpa'' is a species of plant in the family (biology), family Phyllanthaceae, which was recently separated from the Euphorbiaceae. It is found in Colombia and Ecuador. References Hieronyma, macrocarpa Vulnerable plants Taxo ...

'', '' Jacaranda caucana'', '' Juglans neotropica'', ''

Podocarpus oleifolius ''Podocarpus oleifolius'' is a species of conifer in the family Podocarpaceae. It is found in Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Panama, Peru, and Venezuela. ''Podocarpus oleifolius'' contains one sub ...

'', ''

Quercus humboldtii ''Quercus humboldtii'', commonly known as the Andean oak, Colombian oak or roble, is a species of oak found only in Colombia and Panamá. It is named for Alexander von Humboldt. Description ''Quercus humboldtii'' is an evergreen tree which gro ...

'', ''

Tabebuia rosea ''Tabebuia rosea'', also called pink poui, and rosy trumpet tree is a neotropical tree that grows up to and can reach a diameter at breast height of up to . The Spanish name ''roble de sabana'', meaning "savannah oak", is widely used in Costa R ...

'', ''

Tabebuia serratifolia ''Handroanthus serratifolius'' is a species of tree, commonly known as yellow lapacho, pau d'arco, yellow poui, yellow ipe, pau d'arco amarelo, or ''ipê-amarelo''. Description It is a tree native to forests throughout Central and South Amer ...

'', ''

Vochysia ferruginea ''Vochysia'' is a genus of plant in the family Vochysiaceae. It contains the following species, among many others: * ''Vochysia aurifera'', Standl. & L.O. Williams * ''Vochysia haenkeana ''Vochysia'' is a genus of plant in the family Voc ...

'' and palms such as ''

Ceroxylon alpinum ''Ceroxylon alpinum'', also known as the Andean wax palm is a species of palm tree native to Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela. It is threatened by habitat loss Habitat destruction (also termed habitat loss and habitat reduction) is the proc ...

'', ''

Ceroxylon quindiuense ''Ceroxylon quindiuense'', often called Quindío wax palm, is a palm native to the humid montane forests of the Andes in Colombia and northern Peru. Description This palm species can grow to a height of —or rarely, even as high as . It i ...

'', '' Ceroxylon parvifrons'', ''

Ceroxylon sasaimae ''Ceroxylon sasaimae'', also known as the Sasaima wax palm is a species of flowering plant in the family Arecaceae. It is found only in Colombia. It is threatened by habitat loss Habitat destruction (also termed habitat loss and habitat r ...

'', '' Ceroxylon vogelianum'' and ''

Dictyocaryum lamarckianum ''Dictyocaryum lamarckianum'' is a species of flowering plant in the family Arecaceae. It is found in Panama and South America South America is a continent entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, wit ...

''. The wax palms (''

Ceroxylon ''Ceroxylon'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Arecaceae, native to the Andes in Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, known as Andean wax palms.Govaerts, R. & Dransfield, J. (2005). World Checklist of Palms: 1-223. The Bo ...

'') species are of special concern. The Andean rosewood (''

Aniba perutilis ''Aniba'' is an American neotropical flowering plant genus in the family (biology), family Lauraceae. They are present in low and mountain cloud forest in Caribbean islands, Central America, and northern to central South America. Description ...

'') is endangered. Endemics found in the hilly areas along the cordilleras include ''

'', '' Heliconia abaloi'', '' Heliconia estiletioides'', '' Heliconia huilensis'', '' Heliconia laxa'', '' Heliconia mutisiana'', '' Heliconia oleosa'', '' Heliconia reptans'' and ''

Odontoglossum crispum ''Odontoglossum crispum'', the curled odontoglossum, is an epiphytic orchid from the genus ''Odontoglossum''. It is considered by many to be the most beautiful orchid of all but is also one of the most difficult to grow. Description ''Odonto ...

''. Endemic orchids include ''

Cattleya trianae ''Cattleya trianae'' (Lind. & Rchb. fil), also known as ''Flor de Mayo'' ("May flower") or "Christmas orchid", is a plant of the family Orchidaceae. It grows as an epiphytic orchid, with succulent leaves, endemic to Colombia where it was nomin ...

'' in the upper Magdalena and '' Cattleya warscewiczii'' in the San Lucas – Nechi region. Other common orchids are '' Masdevallia coccinea'', '' Miltoniopsis vexillaria'', ''

'' and '' Odontoglossum nobile''. Colombia’s national flower, the Christmas orchid (''

'') is endangered.

Fauna

Large vertebrates are the

cougar The cougar (''Puma concolor'') is a large Felidae, cat native to the Americas. Its Species distribution, range spans from the Canadian Yukon to the southern Andes in South America and is the most widespread of any large wild terrestrial mamm ...

(''Puma concolor''),

oncilla The oncilla (''Leopardus tigrinus''), also known as the northern tiger cat, little spotted cat, and tigrillo, is a small spotted cat ranging from Central America to central Brazil. It is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List, and the popul ...

(''Leopardus tigrinus''), spectacled bear (''Tremarctos ornatus''), Geoffroy's spider monkey (''Ateles geoffroyi''),

brown woolly monkey The common woolly monkey, brown woolly monkey, or Humboldt's woolly monkey (''Lagothrix lagothricha'') is a woolly monkey from Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil, and Venezuela. It lives in groups of two to 70 individuals, usually splitting ...

(''Lagothrix lagothricha''),

South American tapir The South American tapir (''Tapirus terrestris''), also commonly called the Brazilian tapir (from the Tupi ''tapi'ira''), the Amazonian tapir, the maned tapir, the lowland tapir, the ''anta'' (Portuguese), and ''la sachavaca'' (literally "bushco ...

(''Tapirus terrestris''),

mountain tapir The mountain tapir, also known as the Andean tapir or woolly tapir (''Tapirus pinchaque'') is the smallest of the four widely recognized species In biology, a species is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism ...

(''Tapirus pinchaque''),

little red brocket The little red brocket or swamp brocket (''Mazama rufina''), also known as the Ecuador red brocket, is a small, little-studied deer native to the Andes of Colombia, Ecuador and northern Peru, where found in forest and páramo at altitudes between ...

(''Mazama rufina''), pacarana (''Dinomys branickii''), mountain paca (''Cuniculus taczanowskii'') and

Venezuelan red howler The Colombian red howler or Venezuelan red howler (''Alouatta seniculus'') is a South American species of howler monkey, a type of New World monkey, found in the western Amazon Basin in Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Brazil. The populat ...

(''Alouatta seniculus''). The brown woolly monkey, mountain tapir and spectacled bear are of special concern. Endangered mammals include black-headed spider monkey (''Ateles fusciceps''),

red-crested tree-rat The red-crested tree-rat or Santa Marta toro (''Santamartamys rufodorsalis'') is a species of tree-rat found in the monotypic genus ''Santamartamys'' in the family Echimyidae. It is nocturnal and is believed to feed on plant matter, and is mainly ...

(''Santamartamys rufodorsalis''),

Handley's slender opossum Handley's slender opossum (''Marmosops handleyi'') is a species of opossum in the family Didelphidae. It is endemic Endemism is the state of a species being found in a single defined geographic location, such as an island, state, nation, co ...

(''Marmosops handleyi''),

white-footed tamarin The white-footed tamarin (''Saguinus leucopus'') is a tamarin species endemic to Colombia. It is a silvery brown colour with pale streaks and russet underparts, and is very similar in appearance to the cotton-top tamarin, from which it is separa ...

(''Saguinus leucopus'') and

(Tapirus pinchaque). Endangered reptiles include Daniel's large scale lizard ('' Ptychoglossus danieli'') and Colombian lightbulb lizard (''

Riama columbiana ''Riama columbiana'', the Colombian lightbulb lizard, is a species of lizard in the family Gymnophthalmidae Gymnophthalmidae is a family of lizards with at least 250 species, sometimes known commonly as spectacled lizards or microteiids. The ...

'').

Endemic species of birds include the

burrowing owl The burrowing owl (''Athene cunicularia''), also called the shoco, is a small, long-legged owl found throughout open landscapes of North and South America. Burrowing owls can be found in grasslands, rangelands, agricultural areas, deserts, or an ...

(''Athene cunicularia tolimae'') and

velvet-fronted euphonia The velvet-fronted euphonia (''Euphonia concinna'') is a species of bird in the family Fringillidae, having recently been moved there from the Thraupidae. It is endemic to Colombia. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry forest ...

(''Euphonia concinna''), Resident birds include

Andean cock-of-the-rock The Andean cock-of-the-rock (''Rupicola peruvianus''), also known as ''tunki'' (Quechua), is a large passerine bird of the cotinga family native to Andean cloud forests in South America. It is widely regarded as the national bird of Peru. It ha ...

(''Rupicola peruvianus''),

black-and-chestnut eagle The black-and-chestnut eagle (''Spizaetus isidori'') is a South American species of bird of prey in the family Accipitridae. It is sometimes called Isidor's eagle. It is often placed in the monotypic genus ''Oroaetus''. However, recent genetic t ...

(''Spizaetus isidori''),

blue-billed curassow The blue-billed curassow (''Crax alberti'') is a species of bird in the family Cracidae, the chachalacas, Guan (bird), guans, and curassows. It is endemic to Colombia. Taxonomy and systematics The blue-billed curassow is monotypic. However, i ...

(''Crax alberti''),

crested quetzal The crested quetzal /ketSAHL/ (''Pharomachrus antisianus'') is a species of bird in the family Trogonidae native to South America, where it is found in Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropica ...

(''Pharomachrus antisianus''),

golden-headed quetzal The golden-headed quetzal or corequenque (''Pharomachrus auriceps'') is a strikingly coloured bird in the genus ''Pharomachrus''; it is also referred to as ''Trogon auriceps''. It is found in moist mid-elevation forests from eastern Panama to nor ...

(''Pharomachrus auriceps''),

wattled guan The wattled guan (''Aburria aburri'') is a species of bird in the family Cracidae. It is a fairly large black cracid with blue-based, black-tipped beak and a long, red-and-yellow Wattle (anatomy), wattle. It is found in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, ...

(''Aburria aburri'') and

yellow-eared parrot The yellow-eared parrot (''Ognorhynchus icterotis'') is an endangered parrot of the tropics in South America. It is found in the Andes of Colombia. This species was thought to be extinct up until April 1999, when a group of researchers that were ...

(''Ognorhynchus icterotis'') The yellow-eared parrot is of special concern. Migratory song-birds and raptors include

broad-winged hawk The broad-winged hawk (''Buteo platypterus'') is a medium-sized hawk of the genus ''Buteo''. During the summer, some subspecies are distributed over eastern North America, as far west as British Columbia and Texas; they then migrate south to wi ...

(''Buteo platypterus''),

rose-breasted grosbeak The rose-breasted grosbeak (''Pheucticus ludovicianus''), colloquially called "cut-throat" due to its coloration, is a large, seed-eating grosbeak in the cardinal family ( Cardinalidae). It is primarily a foliage gleaner. Males have black heads, ...

(''Pheucticus ludovicianus''),

summer tanager The summer tanager (''Piranga rubra'') is a medium-sized American songbird. Formerly placed in the tanager family (Thraupidae), it and other members of its genus are now classified in the cardinal family (Cardinalidae). The species's plumage and ...

(''Piranga rubra'') and

Swainson's hawk Swainson's hawk (''Buteo swainsoni'') is a large bird species in the Accipitriformes order. This species was named after William Swainson, a British naturalist. It is colloquially known as the grasshopper hawk or locust hawk, as it is very fond ...

(''Buteo swainsoni''). Endangered birds include Antioquia bristle tyrant (''Phylloscartes lanyoni''),

(''Spizaetus isidori''),

(''Crax alberti''), Cauca guan (''Penelope perspicax''),

chestnut-bellied hummingbird The chestnut-bellied hummingbird (''Saucerottia castaneiventris'') is a Near Threatened species of hummingbird in the "emeralds", tribe Trochilini of subfamily Trochilinae. It is endemic to Colombia. Taxonomy and systematics The chestnut-bell ...

(''Amazilia castaneiventris''), Fuertes's parrot (''Hapalopsittaca fuertesi''),

gorgeted wood quail The rare gorgeted wood quail (''Odontophorus strophium'') is a small ground-dwelling bird. This tiny member of the New World quail family has been found in the larger oak forest remnants in the eastern Cordillera ( Serrania de Yariguies and NorA ...

(''Odontophorus strophium''),

Tolima dove The Tolima dove (''Leptotila conoveri'') is a species of bird in the family Columbidae. It is endemic to Colombia. Taxonomy and systematics The Tolima dove is monotypic. It is closely related to the grey-chested dove (''Leptotila cassinii'' ...

(''Leptotila conoveri'') and yellow-headed brush finch (''Atlapetes flaviceps''). Endangered amphibians include Santander poison frog (''

Andinobates virolinensis ''Andinobates virolinensis'' (the Santander poison frog) is a species of frog in the family Dendrobatidae. It is endemic to Colombia where it is confined to the Santander and Cundinamarca departments on the Cordillera Oriental. Description ...

''), Huila stubfoot toad ('' Atelopus ebenoides''), Forest stubfoot toad ('' Atelopus farci''), San Isidro stubfoot toad ('' Atelopus pedimarmoratus''), '' Atelopus simulatus'', '' Atelopus sonsonensis'', Bogota stubfoot toad ('' Atelopus subornatus''), Orphan salamander (''Bolitoglossa capitana''), Pandi mushroomtongue salamander)('' Bolitoglossa pandi''), Antioquia marsupial frog ('' Gastrotheca bufona''), Johnson's horned treefrog ('' Hemiphractus johnsoni''), '' Hyalinobatrachium esmeralda'', Lynch's Colombian tree frog (''Hyloscirtus lynchi''), Rio Luisito tree frog (''Hyloscirtus piceigularis''), Ruiz's rocket frog ('' Hyloxalus ruizi''), Boqueron robber frog ('' Hypodactylus latens''), '' Niceforonia adenobrachia'', El Estadero rain frog ('' Pristimantis actinolaimus''), wine robber frog ('' Pristimantis bacchus''), rana camuflada ('' Pristimantis fetosus''), rana pierniamarilla ('' Pristimantis helvolus''), Hernandez's robber frog ('' Pristimantis hernandezi''), '' Pristimantis jorgevelosai'', rana picuda ('' Pristimantis lemur''), rana camuflada ('' Pristimantis lichenoides''), spotted robber frog ('' Pristimantis maculosus''), '' Pristimantis parectatus'', Los Patos robber frog ('' Pristimantis scoloblepharus''), Gambita robber frog ('' Pristimantis spilogaster''), '' Pristimantis suetus'', Rana de los torrentes ('' Pristimantis torrenticola''), '' Pristimantis tribulosus'', rana camuflada ('' Pristimantis veletis'') and Colombian beaked toad ('' Rhinella nicefori'').

Status

The

World Wide Fund for Nature The World Wide Fund for Nature Inc. (WWF) is an international non-governmental organization founded in 1961 that works in the field of wilderness preservation and the reduction of human impact on the environment. It was formerly named the Wor ...

(WWF) gives the region the status of "Critical/Endangered". The region is home to over 70% of the population of Colombia. The slopes are used for farms and coffee plantations on a large scale, leaving little intact habitat other than fragments of forests. Destruction of these fragments continues, although there is a movement to improve conservation. The upper Magdalena basin has several parks that preserve areas above of elevation, but there is little protection of land below . The areas in best condition are around the

Cueva de los Guácharos Cueva de los Guácharos National Natural Park ( en, Cave of the Oilbirds) is the oldest national park in Colombia. Located in the western face of the Colombian Eastern Andean Range in the departments of Huila and Caquetá, the park covers an ar ...

National Natural Park in the upper Magdalena valley, and on the slopes of the

Puracé Puracé is an andesitic stratovolcano located in the Puracé National Natural Park in the Cauca Department, Colombia. It is part of the North Volcanic Zone of the Andean Volcanic Belt. The volcano is located at the intersection of the Coconuc ...

volcano,

Nevado del Huila Nevado del Huila (, ) at , is the highest volcano in Colombia, located at the tripoint of the departments of Huila, Tolima and Cauca. It is visible from the city of Cali. The andesitic volcano is located on top of the Ibagué Batholith.Planch ...

and

. The Cinturon Andino Cluster Biosphere Reserve covers part of the ecoregion.

References

Bibliography

* * * * {{Biodiversity of Colombia Ecoregions of Colombia Andean forests Neotropical tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests Montane forests